Introduction
Two-Spirit persons form a small minority in the larger whole of the Canadian Indigenous minority group, often overlooked by counsellors or assimilated into the LGBTQ2SIA acronym. By ignoring and thereby rendering Two Spirit realities invisible, counsellors inadvertently participate in the ongoing colonization of Indigenous people in Canada. An essential part of the colonial project was the annihilation and subordination of indigenous ways of knowing and being to ‘civilize’ indigenous peoples using European constructs of civilization and Christian religion (Watson, 2018). Part of this ‘civilizing’ was (and is) denying indigenous understandings of gender and gender diversity through the imposition of the cisgender normative gender binary (O’Sullivan, 2019).
Socially responsive and culturally just counselling requires counsellors and helpers to pursue social justice actively (Collins, 2018). A significant part of Canadian social justice practice is opposing Indigenous people’s ongoing colonization. As we will examine in this paper, the goal of colonization was to take away Two-Spirit self-determination by erasure, invalidation, and ignorance. Resisting colonization means that counsellors must be ready to support the resurgence of Two-Spirit identities in Canada through educating themselves on their history, worldview, determinants of health and appropriate interventions. This paper is one such attempt.
Demographics
Indigenous peoples in Canada, a term that includes First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples, are among the fastest-growing Canadian populations. Five percent of the Canadian population was Indigenous in 2016, with projections to grow to 6.8% by 2041 (Statistics Canada, 2021). In addition, one in 300 people, or 0.33% of the Canadian population, were transgender or non-binary, with 2.2% describing themselves as Two-Spirit (Statistics Canada, 2022).
Two-Spirit Identity and Traditions
The term Two-Spirit is used by Indigenous communities to encompass a variety of gender and sexual identities and may also reflect an individual’s spiritual and cultural role in their community (Hunt, 2016).
Developed at the Third Annual Intertribal Native American/First 20 Nations Gay And Lesbian Conference 1990 in Winnipeg, the Two-Spirit neologism is just one way indigenous peoples define their own traditional gender systems (Baskin, 2022).
Indigenous terms must be understood from Indigenous worldviews and frameworks (Baskin, 2022) rather than settler understandings of binary genders and an excessive heteronormative focus on sexuality. Wilson (1996) writes that the Indigenous worldview does not discretely categorize race, gender, and sexuality but views all aspects of identity as interconnected. Two-Spirit identity interweaves sexuality, gender, community, culture, and spirituality together, and therefore we cannot consider one aspect, like sexuality, separate from the whole of the person’s identity (Wilson, 1996). It is important to note that the categorization of race and gender is central to the colonization process to impose settler views and erase Indigenous categorizations of knowledge, as evidenced by the erasure of Indigenous suprabinary genders (Hunt, 2018).
Gender binary categorizations commodify Indigenous bodies in the past, present, and future by defining family and kinship structures replicating European settler systems (O’Sullivan, 2019). The modern nuclear family norm replaced Indigenous ancestral family models and kin-based relationship models (with extended family) with an exclusive, linear parent to direct child relationships with clear legal descendants and property control(O’Sullivan, 2021). The destruction of Indigenous family systems can be seen in recent history with the sixties scoop, foster care, and recent birth apprehensions, with government agencies defining family and removing children whose parents are not living up to settler norms.
The colonial imposition of a cis binary gender model continues to affect Indigenous worldviews, as evidenced by some Christianized Indigenous nations passing laws prohibiting same-sex marriage (Robinson, 2018). The increased level of homophobia and transphobia within Indigenous communities because of colonization often causes Two-Spirit people to leave their communities, separating them from family land and culture (Provincial Health Services Authority, 2022). This separation is in contradiction to traditional indigenous teachings. Before contact, Indigenous gender systems were diverse, not based in cis/het normativity and understood a person’s identity as their role in the community as well as considering sexuality and gender (Hunt, 2016).
Hunt (2016) notes it is important not to romanticize Indigenous history as completely accepting of gender and sexual fluidity; however, widespread research and oral histories indicate that Two-Spirit persons were held in honour. Two-Spirit persons had essential roles in their communities, such as teaching, knowledge keeping, healing, spiritual leading and being artists (Hunt, 2016).
Coming into the Collective
Reclaiming Two-Spirit identities are one way to restore balance to communities, and connections to community traditions can be declared (Wilson, 2015). Alex Wilson (2015) describes the realization of being Two-Spirit as a “coming in” rather than the coming out process of the LGBTQIA community. Coming out implies separation and the individualism of the Western worldview, whereas coming in reflects the collectivism of Indigenous communities (Baskin, 2022). Coming in is the Two-Spirit person returning to take their place with their relations as part of the community, culture and land (Wilson, 2015).
It should be noted that some Indigenous people may not want to come in as Two-Spirit but may prefer other terms according to their unique selves, culture, nation, and language (Baskin, 2022). As in all things related to client cultural differences, counsellors ought to take a not-knowing stance and engage each person with the intent to learn anew (CCPA, 2021)
The Impacts of Colonisation and the Residential School System
Trans activist and scholar Leslie Feinberg noted that settlers used the non-binary nature of Indigenous gender systems as proof of moral inferiority and justification for colonization and genocide (Feinburg, 1996). The Canadian government has been forcibly assimilating Indigenous folx to settler gender systems, religion and culture via residential schools; the sixties scoop, the millennial scoop, apprehension at birth programs as well as discriminatory Children’s Aid Services and foster care (Robinson, 2018).
The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) calls non-Indigenous psychologists to cultural allyship, which includes understanding the impacts of colonization, the residential school system, the sixties scoop, and the present-day dominant culture (CPA, 2018). In addition, the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association (CCPA) Standards of Practice (2021) requires all counsellors/therapists to understand their own relationship to colonialism, whether as a settler, an Indigenous person, an immigrant, or a combination thereof. The recommended first step for reflecting on colonialism is the impact of the residential school system (CCPA, 2021).
Hunt (2018) states that Indian residential schools were instrumental in the imposition of racialized gender hierarchies among diverse Indigenous communities. Indigenous children became “Indian” boys or girls, separated into gendered dorms and dressed in specific uniforms and haircuts to delineate the gender binary (Hunt, 2018). The inculcation of distinct male/female colonial gender roles erased traditional Indigenous gender understanding, the possibility of suprabinary genders and the existence of Two-Spirit and trans people (Hunt, 2018).
Residential schools worked to eradicate Indigenous languages by forcing students to speak English. In erasing language, residential schools erased Indigenous ways of speaking about self-understandings, including gender understandings (Robinson, 2018). For example, two-thirds of the 200 indigenous languages in North America had words to describe suprabinary genders. This loss of Indigenous terminology also meant a loss of traditional knowledge about Two-Spirit or gender-diverse persons and what important roles they fulfilled in their communities (Hunt, 2016).
Erasing Invisibility of Two-Sprit Persons
The Cultural and institutional erasure of gender-divergent people is the defining characteristic of how colonial cisgender systems operate, as they assume anyone outside the binary is impossible (Namaste, 2000). Cisgenderism is a cultural and systemic ideology that erases, marginalizes or pathologies gender identities that are not assigned gender at birth and enables prejudice and discrimination against the gender minority groups such as trans, non-binary, suprabinary or Two Spirit folk (Lennon & Mistler, 2014). Cisgenderism intersects with white supremacy its attendant colonialism to target trans, non-binary, suprabinary and Two-Spirit individuals for violence and oppression (McKee, 2018). Counsellors need to remember that psychology in Canada developed in the same context and worldviews that developed residential schools and Indigenous cultural genocide (CPA, 2018). Part of good relationship-building with Indigenous people is learning how colonization and white supremacy affect everyone. (University of Winnipeg, 2019).
The historical erasure of Two Spirit persons due to colonization and cisgenderism continues today. An unfortunate example is that none of the 94 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s Calls to Action mention Two-Spirit or LGBTQIA Indigenous persons (University of Winnipeg, 2019).
Determinants of Health
The ongoing erasure of Two-Sprit persons is a determinant of health affecting their ability to be seen, self-advocate, and self-determine (Hunt, 2018). Psychologically, the regular invalidation experiences and non-affirmation gender divergent people experience via misgendering, deadnaming, being treated as nonexistent, and not being included in forms and documents have been linked to higher levels of depression, suicidal ideation, and social anxiety (Johnson et al., 2020).
Research shows that practices affirming Two-Spirit individuals can positively impact mental health (Hunt, 2016). For example, affirming practices could be the following: visible inclusion, such as posting a land acknowledgment, symbols, posters and artwork reflecting Two-Spirit and other gender-diverse worldviews, postcards and pamphlets about Two-Spirit issues/resources, having policies, forms and client literature that is cis/het bias-free and allows the client to self identify, as well as providing gender-neutral washrooms (Fraser Health Authority, 2015).
Queer or LGBT counsellors and allies can affirm Indigenous and Two-Spirit persons by not universalizing western queer experience as normative and understanding that most queer organizations normalize whiteness (Greensmith, 2018). Many LGBTQ non-Indigenous persons erase or colonize Indigenous experience when focusing solely on ‘shared’ queer trauma like homophobia or transphobia and ignoring the intersectionalities and effects of colonization that Indigenous people experience (Greensmith, 2018).
Understanding Intersectionality
Intersectional insensitivity on the part of a counsellor is an unnuanced behaviour that leads gender-diverse persons to disengage from therapy (Snow et al., 2019). Making assumptions about a Two-Spirit client may impose settler bias on them or erase their unique experiences. Research also indicates that therapists who maintain a binary understanding of gender are deemed problematic by gender-diverse clients (Snow et al., 2019). Considering the connections between cisgenderism and the colonial project, all counsellors should strive to avoid reifying the gender binary.
An intersectional understanding of the harms imposed via systems of colonialism, racism, cultural insensitivity, homophobia, and sexism is required when counselling Two-Spirit individuals (Schreiber et al., 2021). Two-Spirit persons often experience homophobia, transphobia, misogyny in their home communities, and racism and classism in the outer world (Wilson, 2015). In the Trans Pulse 2019 national research study, many Indigenous gender-diverse persons reported lived experience with disability, with 54% reporting mental illness, 40% having a neurodivergent identity, 32% living with chronic pain and 30% reporting physical disabilities. Most respondents reported mental health as poor to fair, and 41% had suicidal ideation which is perhaps due to the reported high levels of verbal (79%), sexual (54%), and physical harassment (54%) and social exclusion (76%) with 80% of respondents reporting not being able to participate in traditional ceremonies (Trans Pulse Team, 2019).
Gender Minority Stress
The marginalizing nature of cisgender norming social environments on gender-diverse persons creates gender minority stress, the impact of which creates mental health issues (Tan et al., 2020). For example, research in the Americas, Europe and Asia shows that anxiety symptoms and disorders may be as high as 68% for gender-diverse people compared to the general population’s 18% (Millet et al., 2017).
Indigenous family support is an effective buffer against minority stress impacts and can protect against suicidality (Pettingel et al., 2008 in Tan et al., 2020). Cultural connectedness with community and spiritual sources of support are vital supports for Indigenous gender-diverse persons.
Tan et al., (2020) recommend assessing Indigenous gender-diverse clients with the Indigenist Stress Coping Model by Walters & Simoni (2002). Coping models for Two Spirit people would be their identity, attitude and the level to which they internalize/externalize their cultural heritage, enculturation levels, spiritual methods of coping and traditional health practices (Tan et al., 2020).
The 2019 Trans Pulse Nationwide study detected several positive determinants of health, with 24% of Indigenous gender-diverse persons reporting holding respected roles as Elders and/or Healers. Other community roles for gender-diverse Indigenous persons were fire keeping, drumming/singing, helper to Elders and medicine people (Trans Pulse Team, 2019).
Reclaiming Roles and Strengths-Based Approaches
Reclaiming the traditional roles they once had before contact, Two-Spirit people may build the resilience needed for good mental health. Hunt (2016) writes that Two-Spirit people’s health is understood from two contexts: the effects of colonial oppression and the vitality and strength of the Two-Spirit resurgence. Therefore, while understanding the effects of trauma, counsellors should approach counselling Two-Spirit people from a strengths-based approach (CPA, 2018).
Million (2013) noted that excessive focus on Indigenous trauma develops helping professions that solely regard Indigenous people as damaged and needing rescue. Psychology must consider the strengths of cultural traditions, and ceremonies such as vision quests, sweat lodges and medicine wheels (CPA, 2018). Spiritual experiences, which include seeing spirits and receiving messages, need to be considered legitimate in clients’ assessments (CPA, 2019). All traditional approaches to healing need to be respected in the same way as evidenced-based practice (CPA, 2018).
Respectful Interventions
Interventions for Two-Spirit clients will recognize the importance of land in building identity and the potential need for Elders or traditional healers to be involved in treatment (CPA, 2018). Common themes to explore in Two Spirit identity development are transformation, bridge building, name bestowing and how being Two Spirit means being a spiritually meaningful person (Wilson, 2007).
Community contribution and participation in therapy are important considerations for helpers, and non-indigenous counsellors prioritize building relationships with appropriate knowledge keepers for cultural information and ongoing guidance (CCPA, 2021). Respectful awareness of traditional practices and community guidance will help the Two Spirit client self determine their role and the individual/communal processes they need to do this (CCPA, 2021).
Conclusion
The resurgence of Two-Spirit roles and understanding of the diverse Indigenous gender systems show how much Indigenous worldviews and understanding can offer to Canada. Only recently has Canadian law and society started to understand non-binary and suprabinary realities in a way that echoes traditional Indigenous wisdom (Robinson, 2018). The Canadian Psychological Association (2018) encourages counsellors to draw a wide circle to include Indigenous people physically and conceptually, respecting their traditions and what they have to teach about mental health. An even wider circle would include marginalized Two-Spirit persons, who have persisted with remarkable strength and resilience. In such a wide circle, many people could share in the healing, wisdom and resilience of Two Spirit medicine.
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